Phage , the virus that cures

[William Gaatjes]

It is interesting to know that a French Canadian Scientist called : Félix d'Hérelle discovered the technique of using bacteriophages around 1917. This is mentioned in the video.
But an English scientist ,bacteriologist named Frederick William Twort discovered the technique of using bacteriophages two years earlier around 1915.
Convergence is at play here, independent discoveries.

See this page about the history of these two wonderful men :

Frederick William Twort: not just bacteriophage

microbiologysociety.org

 

[William Gaatjes]

Post covid symptoms. Or lasting long covid symptoms :

Are there other people wondering why they are so incredible yearning for meat (especially chicken) so often ? Just so strange...
According to research, it seems that people with post covid symptoms can have an issue with regulating the amount of the IDO2 enzyme in their tissues.
And IDO-2 enzyme has something to do with metabolizing tryptophan into a substance (kynurenine) that is used for immunoregulation.
I cannot even sleep when i yearn for flesh. Perhaps a tryptophan rich diet can help to alleviate the symptoms.

This seems to be an issue for prolonged post covid symptoms.
But perhaps also for victims with ME-CVS which seems similar at first glance.

Extreme tiredness or being tired fast after being very cognitive... Perhaps headaches after trying to think deeply...

https://www.thelancet.com/journals/ebiom/article/PIIS2352-3964(23)00294-3/fulltext

Excerpt from text :
"
Post-acute sequela of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC) encompass fatigue, post-exertional malaise and cognitive problems. The abundant expression of the tryptophan-catabolizing enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-2 (IDO2) in fatal/severe COVID-19, led us to determine, in an exploratory observational study, whether IDO2 is expressed and active in PASC, and may correlate with pathophysiology.

Methods​

Plasma or serum, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were obtained from well-characterized PASC patients and SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals without PASC. We assessed tryptophan and its degradation products by UPLC-MS/MS. IDO2 activity, its potential consequences, and the involvement of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) in IDO2 expression were determined in PBMC from another PASC cohort by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for IDO2, IDO1, AHR, kynurenine metabolites, autophagy, and apoptosis. These PBMC were also analyzed by metabolomics and for mitochondrial functioning by respirometry. IHC was also performed on autopsy brain material from two PASC patients.

Findings​

IDO2 is expressed and active in PBMC from PASC patients, as well as in brain tissue, long after SARS-CoV-2 infection. This is paralleled by autophagy, and in blood cells by reduced mitochondrial functioning, reduced intracellular levels of amino acids and Krebs cycle-related compounds. IDO2 expression and activity is triggered by SARS-CoV-2-infection, but the severity of SARS-CoV-2-induced pathology appears related to the generated specific kynurenine metabolites. Ex vivo, IDO2 expression and autophagy can be halted by an AHR antagonist.

Interpretation​

SARS-CoV-2 infection triggers long-lasting IDO2 expression, which can be halted by an AHR antagonist. The specific kynurenine catabolites may relate to SARS-CoV-2-induced symptoms and pathology.

"

Frontiers | Differential Roles of IDO1 and IDO2 in T and B Cell Inflammatory Immune Responses

Indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)1 and IDO2 are two closely related tryptophan catabolizing enzymes encoded by linked genes. The IDO pathway is also immunomo...

www.frontiersin.org

Excerpt form the text :
"
Indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)1 and IDO2 are two closely related tryptophan catabolizing enzymes induced under inflammatory conditions that contribute to immune responses. IDO1 is widely expressed in both immune and non-immune tissues, whereas expression of IDO2 is restricted to liver, kidney, and antigen presenting cells (dendritic cells and B cells)

"
and

"
Taken together, IDO1 and IDO2 appear to play opposing roles in inflammatory immune responses, with IDO1 an important inhibitor of effector T cell-mediated responses, especially in the context of cancer, and IDO2 a critical proinflammatory mediator of B cell-mediated autoimmunity.
"

The IDO Metabolic Trap Hypothesis for the Etiology of ME/CFS by Robert D. Phair, PhD and Ron Davis, PhD, Stanford Collaboration - Open Medicine Foundation

The IDO Metabolic Trap: Discover the groundbreaking research on the IDO metabolic trap hypothesis in ME/CFS patients.

www.omf.ngo

Excerpt form text :
"
This story isn’t solely about IDO2 though, it’s also about its brother, IDO1. The IDO1 and IDO2 genes are named so similarly because they each encode for enzymes that transform an essential amino acid (tryptophan) into an important regulator of the immune system (kynurenine). The main difference is that when tryptophan is at high levels in a cell, the IDO2 enzyme increases its production of kynurenine while, surprisingly, the IDO1 enzyme decreases its production of kynurenine. If you have a problem with IDO2 (mutations in the gene) then you must rely solely on IDO1 to produce kynurenine from tryptophan. If for any reason the tryptophan levels in a cell rise too high, then IDO1 will stop making kynurenine and tryptophan levels will remain high. This is the IDO metabolic trap.
"


As an important sidenote :
It also makes me think of EBV infected memory b cells. How does IDO-2 affect these EBV infected memory b cells ?
And the strength of the immune response of the immune system resulting perhaps in :

• EBV reactivation ? ( Reason : The increase of patients with feeling extreme tiredness after the inital SARS-CoV2 [COVID] infection).
• toxoplasmosis reactivation ? (Reason : The increase of patients with depression and/or other psychiatric problems during the outbreak of SARS-CoV2 [COVID]).

What happens exactly with those EBV infected memory b cells ? Is there an increase in chance of getting an autoimmune disease, statistically speaking ? Perhaps yes , i would guess...



The last footnote about diseases caused by faulty mitochondria or ATP function or level disorders :
Since IDO-2 regulates immuno response by regulating memory b cells.
There is mentioning of failing mitochondria in cells with too much IDO-2 present.
Perhaps this has to do with the possibility of a particular Chlamydiae infection like for example Chlamydia psittaci becoming more active again when a SARS-CoV2 infecion is present or when post covid symptomes are there.
Chlamydiae are known ATP parasites , stealing ATP from eukariotic cells for their own survival and replication.
Chlamydiae seems to be not more than 250nm or 300nm in size (RB) and 500nm to 600nm in size (EB).
Chlamydiae lives inside the cell of for example animals but also humans to grow and replicate.
And eukariotic cells are a lot bigger, up to 100um.
This information may be helpful in diseases where the mitochondria are affected or the ATP production is there but the ATP is not usable...
When the cells in our body do not have sufficient ATP, the cell cannot function properly and things like protein malformation may perhaps occur or problems translating DNA into RNA , mRNA or aminoacids->protein, or some epigenetic function to control DNA : Gene expression...

See post #333 for more information about Chlamydiae living inside in cells :

Page 14 - Phage , the virus that cures

Page 14 - Seeking answers? Join the AnandTech community: where nearly half-a-million members share solutions and discuss the latest tech.

forums.anandtech.com

Other information about Chlamydiae :

Chlamydia - Medical Microbiology - NCBI Bookshelf

 

[William Gaatjes]

Human brains consist of nerve cells that are quite quick at transmitting information along axons inside the brain and the nervous system. And of course brains of other vertebrate organisms as well.
However, to improve the transmission of electrical signals , a proper isolation material is needed or a greater distance between the conductive parts.
For us electrical engineers and electronic engineers, this is common knowledge because if we do not isolate electrical signalpaths from each other, we either get short circuits or signal degradation because of impedance changes.
Long ago nature found a way to solve such an issue, by creating an isolating sheet called the myelin sheath.

What is interesting, is that over time parts of dna or rna of viruses can integrate into a higher organism genome.
And some of that dna still has the tendency to want to "live". To deperately trying to repeat itself. And that can result as end result into jumping genes into the genome of a higher organism. Higher meaning, multi cellular or having more complex dna.
Those parts of DNA are called retrotransposons.
And sometimes, that by statistics and chance, (some say God or some control from outher space) such a piece of DNA ends up being very handy for the survival of a species.
In this case, creating an improved myelin sheath that allows nerves to be packed closer together. Allowing for a denser system of sensors, intelligence and control systems AKA senses, brains and nervous systems.



Read all about it at arstechnica :

DNA parasite now plays key role in making critical nerve cell protein

An RNA has been adopted to help the production of myelin, a key nerve protein.

arstechnica.com

Small excerpt:
"
So, how do we make myelin? A key player in its production appears to be a type of molecular parasite called a retrotransposon.
Like other transposons, retrotransposons can move to new locations in the genome through an RNA intermediate. However, most retrotransposons in our genome have picked up too many mutations to move about anymore.
RNLTR12-int is a retrotransposon that is thought to have originally entered our ancestors’ genome as a virus. Rat genomes now have over 100 copies of the retrotransposon.
"



For background about Barbara McClintock and her discovery of jumping genes more than 60 years ago :

Barbara McClintock and the Discovery of Jumping Genes (Transposons)

Barbara McClintock was a pioneer in the field of cytogenetics, and she left a lasting legacy of superb experimental inquiry. McClintock’s breeding experiments with maize are particularly notable in that they provided the first detailed descriptions of transposable elements, or “jumping genes.”...

www.nature.com

Small excerpt:
"
Some of the most profound genetic discoveries have been made with the help of various model organisms that are favored by scientists for their widespread availability and ease of maintenance and proliferation. One such model is Zea mays (maize), particularly those plants that produce variably colored kernels. Because each kernel is an embryo produced from an individual fertilization, hundreds of offspring can be scored on a single ear, making maize an ideal organism for genetic analysis. Indeed, maize proved to be the perfect organism for the study of transposable elements (TEs), also known as "jumping genes," which were discovered during the middle part of the twentieth century by American scientist Barbara McClintock. McClintock's work was revolutionary in that it suggested that an organism's genome is not a stationary entity, but rather is subject to alteration and rearrangement-a concept that was met with criticism from the scientific community at the time. However, the role of transposons eventually became widely appreciated, and McClintock was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1983 in recognition of this and her many other contributions to the field of genetics.
McClintock and the Origins of Cytogenetics

Barbara McClintock began her scientific career at Cornell University, where she pioneered the study of cytogenetics-a new field in the 1930s-using maize as a model organism. Indeed, the marriage of cytology and genetics became official in 1931, when McClintock and graduate student Harriet Creighton provided the first experimental proof that genes were physically positioned on chromosomes by describing the crossing-over phenomenon and genetic recombination. Although Thomas Hunt Morgan was the first person to suggest the link between genetic traits and the exchange of genetic material by chromosomes, 20 years elapsed before his ideas were scientifically proven, largely due to limitations in cytological and experimental techniques (Coe & Kass, 2005). McClintock's own innovative cytogenetic techniques allowed her to confirm Morgan's ideas, and these techniques are numbered among her greatest contributions to science.
"

Transposons

Transposable elements, also known as “jumping genes,” are DNA sequences that move from one location on the genome to another. These elements were first identified more than 50 years ago by American geneticist Barbara McClintock. Although biologists were initially skeptical of McClintock’s...

www.nature.com

Small excerpt:
"
Transposable elements (TEs), also known as "jumping genes," are DNA sequences that move from one location on the genome to another. These elements were first identified more than 50 years ago by geneticist Barbara McClintock of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York. Biologists were initially skeptical of McClintock's discovery. Over the next several decades, however, it became apparent that not only do TEs "jump," but they are also found in almost all organisms (both prokaryotes and eukaryotes) and typically in large numbers. For example, TEs make up approximately 50% of the human genome and up to 90% of the maize genome (SanMiguel, 1996).
Types of Transposons

Today, scientists know that there are many different types of TEs, as well as a number of ways to categorize them. One of the more common divisions is between those TEs that require reverse transcription (i.e., the transcription of RNA into DNA) in order to transpose and those that do not. The former elements are known as retrotransposons or class 1 TEs, whereas the latter are known as DNA transposons or class 2 TEs. The Ac/Ds system that McClintock discovered falls in the latter category. Different classes of transposable elements are found in the genomes of different eukaryotic organisms (Figure 1).
"

 

[William Gaatjes]

Obviously I'm no expert, but let's think about this postulation:

Now I read in the arstechnica article, although it allows a rather broad interpretation, that the SARS-CoV2 virus was still active in the gut but was no longer detectable in the nasal cavities. That's vague isn't it? .

I recently posted the following piece of text about fungi that live in the intestines and that also have ACE-2 genes and for the sake of convenience I will assume that they also have ACE-2 receptors to which the SARS-CoV2 virus can connect through of the spike glycoprotein. .
.
What if the original SARS-CoV was a mycovirus that evolved in nature to attack and subsist on the fungal pathogen Candida glabrata? Because the virus targets ACE-2 receptors because the candida glabrata fungus does seem to have ACE-2 genes? So the big question is: does Candida glabrata have ACE-2 receptors? And maybe the Candida glabrata fungus triggers ACE-2 receptors in the human body? Mycoviruses are viruses that specifically attack fungi. Perhaps it is, SARS-CoV and SARS-COV2 are positive single strand RNA viruses. And there are also mycoviruses that are positive single strand RNA viruses. Another good question is: what if people are only harmed and at serious risk if they have the Candida glabrata fungus with them and in general (exceptions like being sensitive to the virus itself set aside) are virtually unharmed when infected? with SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV2 but the fungus is not present and no other underlying disease is present ? I would also like to point out that excessive amounts of (candida) mold and yeasts in the intestines often go hand in hand with being overweight and having an extreme sugar craving and wanting to eat nonstop. Yeasts and fungi such as Candida are crazy about sugars and then the suspicion is also strongly about sucrose and high fructose corn syrup. The introduction of this type for split cheap super sugars is in the same timeline as the emergence of people with too much overweight and continuous hunger. That is again a coincidence. Some studies have been done on this in America. The yeasts and molds in the gut are known to produce neurotransmitters that can modulate the host's mental state in sufficient numbers through the bloodstream and brain. And also can produce histamines and modulate the immune system. This is certainly possible with a wrong diet with extremely many carbohydrates and hardly any exercise. In other words, they are more parasitic fungi and do not form a symbiotic alliance with the host as bacteria do in the gut flora and fauna, body orifices and on the skin. This is from research that has only been known for 3 years that fungi and yeasts live in the gut and are suppressed by symbiotic bacteria.

Explanation about molds and yeasts in dutch , you have to push it through the translation : https://www.bonusan.com/nl/nieuws/het-mycobioom-en-de-invloed-op-onze-darm-hersenas
.
The Mycobiome: A Neglected Component in the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5874636/
.
The study is from 2004. Inactivation of Transcription Factor Gene ACE2 in the Fungal Pathogen Candida glabrata Results in Hypervirulence
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC387657/
.
About the virus and memory b cells.

The persistence of memory in B cells: Hints of stability in COVID immunity

Studies are small so far, but they’re pointing to decent long-term immune responses.

arstechnica.com

As add on :

There is one big question, the normal gut microbiome... Should it only contain a variety of bacteria ?
Or as others postulated : Should the human gut also carry fungi and protozoa.
Or is the modern human gut riddled with disease ? Weakening humans in healing strength and physical strength and cognitive as result ?
Weakened because of the wrong diet and global polution which also affects our daily environment.
Just think of those HFCS sirope for example or other artifical monosaccharides, that create an ideal environment for sugar loving fungi... Fungi do not even have to break bonds between monosaccharides ever again. One obstacle less while we get satured with way too much of the wrong sugar and in the wrong balancing composition...

When looking at various mammals which are omnivores, it seems that our primary microbial resource is bacteria only.
If we look at herbivores, these animals also should contain bacteria only...

Perhaps once long ago we had a benefical fungi helping to shape our modern brains.
Humans used to prefer shelter like caves after all...
But we lost that benefical fungi because perhaps we did not need it anymore.
And by evolution we as a species gathered bacteria that have antifungal properties.

We all know that bacteria and fungi are seemingly adversaries.
Lot of bacteria that have evolved to produce toxins as a defense mechanism against fungi and also vice versa fungi that have evolved to produce toxins as a defense mechanism against bacteria.

And do not forget : Bacteria against bacteria and fungi against fungi. It is not as easy some people think...
Would be boring if it was that easy...

Interesting stuff to wonder about...

 

[William Gaatjes]

The follow up about post #354 :
These three posts come from a thread i myself posted in 2021...

Look people, my statistical prediction unit, also know as gut feeling. (Just joking, i am making a wild guess).
gives me a strong idea that the bats in the caves in Wuhan China where the original SARS-CoV viruses emerged, a common fungal bat parasite may be found with ACE2 genes that is susceptible to a myco virus that looks very much like SARS-COV.

Perhaps this will help :

It’s time to fear the fungi

Humans have long been protected from fungal infections. Climate change could ruin that.

arstechnica.com

"
One of the reasons fungal infections are so common in so many creatures is that fungi themselves are ubiquitous. "This is dating myself, but you know the Sting song 'Every Breath You Take'? Well, every breath you take you inhale somewhere between 100 and 700,000 spores," says Andrej Spec, a medical mycologist at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. "They've made it to the space station. They are absolutely everywhere."


Humans can and do get fungal infections (athlete's foot, for starters, and fungal diseases are one of the leading causes of death for immunocompromised people with HIV). But people are generally unlikely to fall to a fungus for one big reason: humans are hot. (Although, if you want to be the pedant at a party, you might enjoy learning that humans are generally not, in fact, the commonly cited 98.6° Fahrenheit (37° C). That number comes from a German study done in 1851. In fact, human body temperature seems to have been cooling recently, and the global average is between 97.5 and 97.9° Fahrenheit (36.4 and 36.6°C.) Warm-blooded environments, in general, tend to be too warm for a fungus to survive. One of Casadevall's studies estimated that 95 percent of fungal species simply cannot survive at average human internal temperature.


You can see this temperature barrier in action when you look at animals that hibernate, which requires dropping their internal temperatures to survive the winter. Bats, for example, have recently suffered huge declines due to white nose syndrome, which infects them while they're hibernating and therefore cooler than usual.


For Casadevall, these findings support his theory about the animal world's long history with fungi. He argues that perhaps our warm-blooded natures evolved specifically to avoid the kinds of fungal infections that can wipe out cold-blooded populations.


"

What Is White-nose Syndrome? (U.S. National Park Service)

www.nps.gov

"
White-nose syndrome (WNS) is the fungal disease killing bats in North America. Research indicates the fungus that causes WNS, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, is likely exotic, introduced from Europe. What started in New York in 2006 has spread to more than half of the United States and five Canadian provinces by August 2016, leaving millions of dead bats in its path. WNS causes high death rates and fast population declines in the species affected by it, and scientists predict some regional extinction of bat species. These include the once numerous little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) and federally listed Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) and northern long-eared bat (Myotis spetentronalis).
"

 

[William Gaatjes]

The follow up about post #354 and #355 :
These three posts come from a thread i myself posted in 2021...

The puzzle pieces of the corona SARS virus put next to each other:
We have to worry about mold when it gets colder and damp.

Another summary of the facts will end in a combination with a SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV2 infection. at least that is the conjecture and it remains a postulation on my part:

I never knew that, but Arstechnica has a nice article about fungi and why we do and don't get fungi. It now appears that animals that hibernate, such as bats, also get fungal infections because their body temperature drops and it is damp in the cave. Even think about it : the corona virus SARS probably comes from caves with bats in caves in Yunnan province in southwest China . Bats are also infected by fungi. Suppose the bats are the virus factories created by fungi, are infected and viruses that are fighting with each other in the bat. Suppose the corona virus actually mainly has fungi as primary prey...
.
.
Candida glabrata, a fungus that is infected and often seen in association with excess, of old age, or genesis of a combination of has ACE2 genes and is causing real deaths in America already. You often get an immune system disease in people with for example HIV, or for example, from organ transplants in combination with strong immune-suppressing drugs from people with a comorbidity that must be kept under control with high-dose immune-suppressing drugs with many side effects such as prednisone. It's not to say that people just die, it is the combination that matters, the combination I think.
.
Myco Viruses are viruses that infect fungi.
Common: Positive strand RNA virus.
.
Corona is also a positive strand RNA virus.
.
The corona virus SARS-CoV and its successor SARS-CoV2 have a spike glycoprotein that attacks the ACE2 receptor.
.
The SARS-CoV2 virus may remain active in the digestive system. via the visceral fat cells or in the intestines itself where fungi live. Then perhaps especially the large intestine is where the intestinal flora and fauna (bacteria, single-celled organisms and fungi) are located in a local SARS-CoV2 reservoir.
.
But a number of participants (less than half of those tested) still had evidence of active SARS-CoV-2 infections in the gut, even though the nasal tests were negative:

The persistence of memory in B cells: Hints of stability in COVID immunity

Studies are small so far, but they’re pointing to decent long-term immune responses.

arstechnica.com

.
.
Bat cave solves mystery of deadly SARS virus - and suggests new outbreak may occur:

Bat cave solves mystery of deadly SARS virus — and suggests new outbreak could occur

Chinese scientists find all the genetic building blocks of SARS in a single population of horseshoe bats.

www.nature.com

.
.
It's time to fear the fungi:

It’s time to fear the fungi

Humans have long been protected from fungal infections. Climate change could ruin that.

arstechnica.com

.
.
White-nose syndrome (WNS) is the fungal disease that kills bats in North America:

What Is White-nose Syndrome? (U.S. National Park Service)

www.nps.gov

.
.
How China's 'Bat Woman' Hunted Viruses From SARS To Novel Coronavirus:

How China's 'Bat Woman' Hunted Down Viruses from SARS to the New Coronavirus

Wuhan-based virologist Shi Zhengli has identified dozens of deadly SARS-like viruses in bat caves, and she warns there are more out there

www.scientificamerican.com

 

[William Gaatjes]

Might as well place this here too. It is about ergotism , a disease caused when people consume a particular type of fungi.
This fungi contains alkaloids that can cause serious hallucinations and other health issues when consumed.

And about the bacteria clostridium tetani. Which causes the disease tetanus.
There is rabies , a virus that causes the poor host to be extremely hostile, angry and for some reason have a fear of water.

I watched some time ago the movie "The exorcist" , extended director's cut.
And the movie is about a person being possessed.

There have been quite a few documentaries about what posession really means.
Well, i think the old religious text from various sources are derived from other ancient texts that describe diseases. One could say it is misinterpretation or perhaps because of an issue caused by "The eye of the beholder".
We all know that parasites and various other infectious diseases that are for example bacterial or viral in nature can take possession of a host. And that infectious diseases are in fact of all times.
And with possession i do not mean a demonic possession but an infectious disease.
And some of those infectious diseases can create serious disaster. Especially combined, as multiple infectious agents at once.
Some of the scenes in the movie the exorcist describe enormous strength and that is possible when the poor patient has been infected with Clostridium tetani.
Imagine that in the old days, a poor person would have been eating rye infected with the fungi Claviceps purpurea which causes ergotism.
Ergotism causes muscle spasms and can cause serious wounds and even wounds exhibiting signs of gangreen over time.
And that that poor person is also infected with the bacteria Clostridium tetani. That would cause the poor patient to develop bleeding inflamed sores and the
spasm from the tetanus infection would cause really the most awful deformations of the body like people arching their back like they are about to walk
on hands and feet but with the back fully arched and facing the ground (like the spiderwalk scene in the movie). This can be a result of a patient trying to walk away from the affliction called opisthotonus.
Imagine the excruciating pain of extreme muscle contraction powerful enough to break bones or tear off ligaments...
That would make anybody scream in such a way it would scare everybody especially if you care for such poor patients.
Lockjaw is known but what is really scary is opisthotonus. It is all scary.
This in the old days was common but it is suspected that in those times solutions found in nature where known.
Something like : "The enemy of my enemy is temporary my friend".

Like we have medicines these days often derived from plants, bacteria, fungi and even phages that are just here to be found in nature.

Anyway, imagine that the same patient with these diseases would also have the bad luck to acquire the rabies virus.
Then we have a patient, that fears water, is extremely aggressive , hallucinates, over time have bleeding inflamed sores that get gangrenous and exhibits seemingly inhuman strength and movements as if the the patient is a contortionist.
Knowing this all, it seems a lot less scary.

However, to keep the scary horrormovie ambiance alive :

There is always, a possibility though, that evil may lurk out there....
Remember self-organization in biology ?
It is known now that there are a lot of quantum mechanical stuff is happening in living cells and living organisms.
Imagine to lighten things up... That a lot of those infectious disease start to self organize and start to quorum sensing...
Remember that sound plate covered with sand and with a speaker used for developing specific patterns in the sand ? That is called a Chladni plate.
Everything seems to vibrate at any level and with multiple frequencies. Perhaps the body is made ready to be a portal, a gateway so to say... To another dimension !
Perhaps there was not a misinterpretation... (Queue in Vincent Price laugh audio sample).

 

[William Gaatjes]

These newsitems about a mushroom Hericium erinaceus and the active compounds found in it, is very interesting. This perhaps may even result in a solution to solve neural damage in spinal cords. Allowing unfortunate disabled people to once again regain control over paralyzed limbs.

Mushrooms magnify memory by boosting nerve growth

Researchers have discovered the active compound from an edible mushroom that boosts nerve growth and enhances memory.

www.sciencedaily.com

Excerpt from text :
"
Researchers from The University of Queensland have discovered the active compound from an edible mushroom that boosts nerve growth and enhances memory.

Professor Frederic Meunier from the Queensland Brain Institute said the team had identified new active compounds from the mushroom, Hericium erinaceus.
Researchers have discovered lion's mane mushrooms improve brain cell growth and memory in pre-clinical trials.
"Extracts from these so-called 'lion's mane' mushrooms have been used in traditional medicine in Asian countries for centuries, but we wanted to scientifically determine their potential effect on brain cells," Professor Meunier said.
"Pre-clinical testing found the lion's mane mushroom had a significant impact on the growth of brain cells and improving memory.
"Laboratory tests measured the neurotrophic effects of compounds isolated from Hericium erinaceus on cultured brain cells, and surprisingly we found that the active compounds promote neuron projections, extending and connecting to other neurons.
"

Compound in Mushrooms Discovered To Magnify Memory by Boosting Nerve Growth

Researchers from The University of Queensland have discovered the active compound from an edible mushroom that boosts nerve growth and enhances memory. Professor Frederic Meunier from the Queensland Brain Institute said the team had identified new active compounds from the mushroom, Hericium erin

scitechdaily.com

Excerpt from text :
"
Researchers from The University of Queensland have discovered the active compound from an edible mushroom that boosts nerve growth and enhances memory.
Professor Frederic Meunier from the Queensland Brain Institute said the team had identified new active compounds from the mushroom, Hericium erinaceus. This type of edible mushroom, commonly known as the Lion’s Mane Mushroom, is native to North America, Europe, and Asia. It is commonly sought after for its unique flavor and texture, and it is also used in traditional Chinese medicine to boost the immune system and improve digestive health.
Researchers have discovered lion’s mane mushrooms improve brain cell growth and memory in pre-clinical trials.
“Extracts from these so-called ‘lion’s mane’ mushrooms have been used in traditional medicine in Asian countries for centuries, but we wanted to scientifically determine their potential effect on brain cells,” Professor Meunier said.
"
Image from text :

 

[William Gaatjes]

In post #334 i mentioned that perhaps the SARS-CoV2 is able to attack fungi living inside the human body.
Since it seems highly likely to me and many others that the SARS-CoV2 was originally a myco-virus before it was able to spread to the human world by the same force of the universe that seems to be a big part of keeping the universe in existence : "Chaos" .
The complexity of everyday life as events happen on every scale.

A little background information :
Those fungi may not suppose to live inside humans or there may be a severe unbalance.
Often by perhaps a wrong lifestyle , wrong (marketed) diet, an underlying condition. A combination of many.
It is known that fungi love them some carbohydrates AKA saccharides AKA sugars, just as much like we humans do.
But they even more love easy to digest saccharides especially the spit ones called monosaccharides which can be found often in our modern (often processed) diet. Try to stay away from HFCS and derivatives.

Back to the subject :
Now more research pops up that the SARS-CoV2 virus is actually having more of a disastrous effect on the body when fungi reside inside the body.
Read it all at the great tech and news website Arstechnica :

The fungi in our guts can make cases of COVID worse

The immune system can get kicked into overdrive when the fungi run riot.

arstechnica.com

Small excerpt from the text :
"
In research published in Nature Immunology, he and his team discovered that in patients with severe Covid, certain strains of gut fungi—knocked off-kilter by the virus—set off a prolonged immune response that could last long after the initial infection.
This response potentially led to some of the respiratory symptoms experienced by these patients. These results, Iliev says, point to the critical role of the gut microbiome in the human immune response and could lead to better disease treatments down the line.
"
and
"
Imbalance of the gut microbiome has long been linked to disease. Ken Cadwell, an immunologist at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, thinks of the microbiome as a metaphorical rainforest. “It’s a nice ecosystem—but if you cut down too many trees or bring in invasive species, you could make things go out of whack,” he says.
"


Post #334 :

Page 14 - Phage , the virus that cures

Page 14 - Seeking answers? Join the AnandTech community: where nearly half-a-million members share solutions and discuss the latest tech.

forums.anandtech.com

Little excerpt from the post #334 :
"
A little background :
The SARS-CoV2 virus probably comes from caves in China where bats live, but beware:
Caves are often cold and wet, so they can also be good soils for fungi to thrive.
Just look at the bat cases where the bats are overgrown by fungi during hibernation.

SARS-CoV2 is known to be a mycovirus.
Mycoviruses are viruses that infect fungi.
Common : Positive-strand RNA virus.
Corona is also a Positive-strand RNA virus and seems to come from caves where bats also live and those caves are wet and cold and damp.
The corona virus SARS-CoV and its successor SARS-CoV2 have a spike glycoprotein that attacks the ACE2 receptor, where it is suspected that it can also be found on some fungi.
.
The SARS-CoV2 virus may remain active in the digestive system, research shows.
Perhaps in the gut itself where fungi live. Then perhaps especially the large intestine, where the intestinal flora and fauna (bacteria, single-celled organisms and fungi) are located, is a local SARS-CoV2 reservoir.
"

 

[William Gaatjes]

This time a video about how molecular machines work inside the body.
It is a great view to see how complex the molecular machines inside our cells function.
Operating at atom speed at atom distances => extremely fast :

 

[William Gaatjes]

This video is about : Homochirality: Why nature never makes mirror molecules

 

[William Gaatjes]

Over the years since the first post at date October 10, 2009, some links to websites and images are dead.
Unfortunately also about molecular rotary engines, so i added some links below , these amazing engines can run at 20.000rpm.

Frontiers | A new class of biological ion-driven rotary molecular motors with 5:2 symmetry

Several new structures of three types of protein complexes, obtained by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and published between 2019 and 2021, identify a ne...

www.frontiersin.org

Applying torque to the Escherichia coli flagellar motor using magnetic tweezers - Scientific Reports

The bacterial flagellar motor of Escherichia coli is a nanoscale rotary engine essential for bacterial propulsion. Studies on the power output of single motors rely on the measurement of motor torque and rotation under external load. Here, we investigate the use of magnetic tweezers, which in...

www.nature.com

Ion-Powered Rotary Motors: Where Did They Come from and Where They Are Going?

Molecular motors are found in many living organisms. One such molecular machine, the ion-powered rotary motor (IRM), requires the movement of ions across a membrane against a concentration gradient to drive rotational movement. The bacterial flagellar motor (BFM) is an example of an IRM which...

www.mdpi.com

 

[William Gaatjes]

This video is about : Homochirality: Why nature never makes mirror molecules

When thinking about chirality and the possible havoc creating effects of mirror molecules , the most infamous example is of course softenon also known as thalidomide.

Text version :

Thalidomide | Science Museum

Not only did thalidomide change people’s lives, but it resulted in tighter drug testing and reporting of side-effects.

www.sciencemuseum.org.uk

"
Thalidomide
Thalidomide is a compound that was developed in the 1950s by the West German pharmaceutical company Chemie Grünenthal GmbH. It was originally intended as a sedative or tranquiliser but was soon used for treating a wide range of other conditions, including colds, flu, nausea and morning sickness in pregnant people.
During early testing, researchers at the company found that it was virtually impossible to give test animals a lethal dose of the drug (based on the LD50 test). Largely based on this, the drug was deemed to be harmless to humans. Thalidomide was licensed in July 1956 for over-the-counter sale (no doctor’s prescription was needed) in Germany.
Thalidomide in the marketplace

Around the world, more and more pharmaceutical companies started to produce and market the compound under license from Chemie Grünenthal. By the mid-1950s, 14 pharmaceutical companies were marketing thalidomide in 46 countries under at least 37 different trade names.
In 1958, thalidomide was produced in the United Kingdom by The Distillers Company (Biochemicals) Ltd, under the brand names Distaval, Tensival, Valgraine and Asmaval. Their advertisement claimed that
Distaval can be given with complete safety to pregnant women and nursing mothers without adverse effect on mother or child.
"
and
"
Thalidomide and pregnancy
In the 1950s, scientists did not know that the effects of a drug could be passed through the placental barrier and impact a foetus in the womb, so the use of medications during pregnancy was not strictly controlled. And in the case of thalidomide, no tests were done involving pregnant people.
As the compound was traded under so many different names in 49 countries, it took five years for the connection between thalidomide taken by pregnant people
Thalidomide causes nerve damage in the hands and feet of adults, but when taken in early pregnancy it causes impairments such as limb difference, sight loss, hearing loss, facial paralysis, and impact to internal organs. One tablet is enough to cause significant impairments, and this might not always be visible. One reason why researchers and doctors were slow to make this connection was due to the wide range of changes to foetal development. Later, they found that the impact on development was linked to when during pregnancy the drug was taken, and effects only occurred between 20 and 37 days after conception.
Another reason why it took so long to establish the link to thalidomide was that some of the limb difference impairments caused by the drug was very similar to certain genetic conditions that cause limb difference.
"


And a nice video :

 

[WilliamM2]

Can this 15 year old thread end now?

 

[William Gaatjes]

Can this 15 year old thread end now?

Certainly not.

A lot of people love to read and learn.

My dear, have we been kissing the bottle too often ?
Easy on the spiked coffee...

 

[William Gaatjes]

When thinking about chirality and the possible havoc creating effects of mirror molecules , the most infamous example is of course softenon also known as thalidomide.

Text version :

Thalidomide | Science Museum

Not only did thalidomide change people’s lives, but it resulted in tighter drug testing and reporting of side-effects.

www.sciencemuseum.org.uk

"
Thalidomide
Thalidomide is a compound that was developed in the 1950s by the West German pharmaceutical company Chemie Grünenthal GmbH. It was originally intended as a sedative or tranquiliser but was soon used for treating a wide range of other conditions, including colds, flu, nausea and morning sickness in pregnant people.
During early testing, researchers at the company found that it was virtually impossible to give test animals a lethal dose of the drug (based on the LD50 test). Largely based on this, the drug was deemed to be harmless to humans. Thalidomide was licensed in July 1956 for over-the-counter sale (no doctor’s prescription was needed) in Germany.
Thalidomide in the marketplace

Around the world, more and more pharmaceutical companies started to produce and market the compound under license from Chemie Grünenthal. By the mid-1950s, 14 pharmaceutical companies were marketing thalidomide in 46 countries under at least 37 different trade names.
In 1958, thalidomide was produced in the United Kingdom by The Distillers Company (Biochemicals) Ltd, under the brand names Distaval, Tensival, Valgraine and Asmaval. Their advertisement claimed that
Distaval can be given with complete safety to pregnant women and nursing mothers without adverse effect on mother or child.
"
and
"
Thalidomide and pregnancy
In the 1950s, scientists did not know that the effects of a drug could be passed through the placental barrier and impact a foetus in the womb, so the use of medications during pregnancy was not strictly controlled. And in the case of thalidomide, no tests were done involving pregnant people.
As the compound was traded under so many different names in 49 countries, it took five years for the connection between thalidomide taken by pregnant people
Thalidomide causes nerve damage in the hands and feet of adults, but when taken in early pregnancy it causes impairments such as limb difference, sight loss, hearing loss, facial paralysis, and impact to internal organs. One tablet is enough to cause significant impairments, and this might not always be visible. One reason why researchers and doctors were slow to make this connection was due to the wide range of changes to foetal development. Later, they found that the impact on development was linked to when during pregnancy the drug was taken, and effects only occurred between 20 and 37 days after conception.
Another reason why it took so long to establish the link to thalidomide was that some of the limb difference impairments caused by the drug was very similar to certain genetic conditions that cause limb difference.
"


And a nice video :

I was missing the chiral part about why the drug thalidomide can be so dangerous especially when taken by pregnant women :

Nature's mirror: The code for chirality

How information is transferred from biological molecules to crystalline surfaces could pave the way for the development of new drugs and other synthetic materials.

www.sciencedaily.com

Small excerpt from text :
"
How information is transferred from biological molecules to crystalline surfaces could pave the way for the development of new drugs and other synthetic materials.

New research, published today in Nature Chemistry, explains how biological molecules can change the shape of minerals by controlling how they link together.
Investigating why crystals of achiral minerals obtain a chiral shape -- that is, how they take on a left- or right-handed nature -- the research team showed how metal surfaces could be re-shaped by chiral molecules.
The importance of chirality -- or 'handedness' -- in drug development was brought to light in a devastating way almost half a century ago with the development of the Thalidomide drug.
Prescribed widely to pregnant women for the treatment of morning sickness, it was later discovered that Thalidomide is a chiral molecule and while the left-handed molecule was effective, the right-handed one was highly toxic. As a result, thousands of children around the world were born with severe birth defects.
Paving the way for new drugs
Professor Werner Hofer, from Newcastle University, UK, and one of the authors on the paper, says this new research furthers our understanding how chiral molecules behave and could pave the way for the development of new drugs and other synthetic materials.

"In the biological world, we see inorganic minerals being shaped with remarkable control but until now we haven't understood how it was happening at the level of the atoms," explains Professor Hofer.
"Now we see that the organic molecules are acting as a scaffold, dictating where the atoms of the minerals are placed and how they are linked together -- a bit like building blocks. And as they do this, the biomolecules transfer their left or right-handed nature, or chirality, to the crystal structure.
"By understanding this process, we can now force materials to behave in a certain way, using biological plans to create the shapes and structures that we want. This has huge potential in the fields of materials design and drug synthesis."
"
and
"
Chirality and drug development -- the Thalidomide tragedy
Thalidomide was prescribed widely to pregnant women between 1957 and 1962 for its benefits in reducing morning sickness.
However, when taken during the first trimester of pregnancy, Thalidomide prevented the proper growth of the foetus and the result was that thousands of children around the world were born with severe birth defects.
Thalidomide is a chiral molecule and the drug that was marketed was a 50/50 mixture of left and right-handed molecules. While the left-handed molecule was effective, the right-handed one was highly toxic.
The essential oil carvone is another (of many) examples of where the right and left handed forms of the molecule are polar opposites -- one smelling like caraway, the opposite handed isomer like spearmint.
"The Thalidomide tragedy highlights the important role played by chirality in biological systems and what happens when we get it wrong," says Professor Hofer.
"This research will hopefully further our understanding of this process and help us to accurately synthesise new drugs and materials in the future."
"

 

[WilliamM2]

Certainly not.

A lot of people love to read and learn.

My dear, have we been kissing the bottle too often ?
Easy on the spiked coffee...

And yet no one has responded for over two years. And only one for the past 5 or more.

And please don't project, I have no use for alcohol.
Don't forget your meds.

 

[misuspita]

There's no need for someone responding. I find some of this information very interesting, very outside of my knowledge basin and I'd like him to continue publishing things like these when he's got time.

 

[William Gaatjes]

And yet no one has responded for over two years. And only one for the past 5 or more.

And please don't project, I have no use for alcohol.
Don't forget your meds.

Yet, this thread is read often.
The truth is that the only people who are knowledgeable and participated in the thread, have become very busy persons.
The sadness is as mentioned years ago, many people graduated, got married or either got moarried . Or have a very demanding job. A busy personal life, Or a combination of any.
And then there is reddit , facebook and other of those frenzy wild social media mediums.

I do know, most people enjoy this thread.

I myself am not a professional but this stuff is marvellously interesting !

Personally i prefer fora like Anandtechforum.
Cause it is not that intensive, fast paced and allows you to delay the response to a appropriate time.

I used medication for physical ailments.
I am not there yet.
But i will get there.

 

[William Gaatjes]

There's no need for someone responding. I find some of this information very interesting, very outside of my knowledge basin and I'd like him to continue publishing things like these when he's got time.

We are just fooling witch each other.

 

[William Gaatjes]

Steve Mould : Why the sex pilus is so dangerous - horizontal gene transfer
I knew about plasmids and phages, but there are more options for a bacteria to gain foreign dna that it did not had in its genome before.

 

[William Gaatjes]

Since this thread is about all kinds of microbiological and biological stuff to learn about in an easy way...

I was reading about why vampirebats drink blood.
There are it seems only 3 species known :

• Desmodus rotundus
• Diphylla ecaudata
• Diaemus youngi

This is kind of weird to learn about.
Have anyone ever looked up the skull of a vampire bat ?
Large canines teeth. Other rodents do not seem to possess such canines teeth.

Even the fierce grashoppers mouse with its shrieking howl at the moon !
Does not have canines teeth....



Desmodus rotundus
And an explanation about why drinking blood ? Genes modified, gained or lost ?

Lost Genes Explain Vampire Bats' Diet of Blood

To survive on nutrient-poor blood, less can sometimes be more

www.scientificamerican.com

Small excerpt from the text :

"
Though vampire movies treat blood like an elixir, the watery fluid is nearly devoid of carbohydrates and fats, and it has few calories. Because of these deficiencies, vampire bats have lower insulin levels than other mammals and must drink up to 1.4 times their body weight in blood at each meal to get enough nutrients. Guzzling this much blood is dangerous, though, because it is laced with high concentrations of iron, which can wreak havoc on the digestive tract and liver. Despite weighing a little more than a single AA battery, vampire bats consume an estimated 800 times more iron in their diet than the average human.

One of the deletions was related to the sculpting ofthe vampire bats’ strange stomach. It is shaped like a floppy wind sock and specialized for a single task, says Melissa Ingala, a bat biologist at Fairleigh Dickinson University, who was not involved with the study. “That shape has evolved to fill up like a water balloon and get as much water out of the blood as possible so that all they’re left to digest is the actual solid cellular component of the blood,” she says. This means that vampire bats must begin urinating immediately after feeding to expel all the excess water sloshing inside their stomach and weighing them down.

Another lost gene, called REP15, was once responsible for keeping iron in the bats’ bloodstream and out of their intestines. Without this stopgap in place, iron is able to seep into the cells along the intestinal wall. But the researchers hypothesize that this seeping is actually good for the bats. The intestinal cells are short-lived and easily replaceable, meaning the bats can shed them through their digestive systems and expel them in iron-rich droppings instead of having the extra iron continue to course through their bloodstream.

The vampire bat brain may have also benefitted from a fortuitous gene loss. CYP39A1 is a gene primarily responsible for degrading a by-product of cholesterol digestion. Without it, the levels of that so-called metabolite in the bats’ brain skyrocket. Past research has determined that higher levels of the metabolite was responsible for increasing memory, learning and sociability in rodents. That may help explain why vampire bats appear to be smarter and more social than their bat brethren.
"


And a video about the grashopper mouse !
It seems the cells of the grasshopper mouse are able when the grasshopper mouse is stung by a scorpion, to rapidly convert the venom into a painkiller to reduce the pain the grashopper mouse experiences during the fight to kill the prey, which is the scorpion.
That makes all of us wonder of course how do the cells of the grasshopper mouse do this ?

Perhaps not the cells but symbiotic bacteria ? Perhaps when it is not bacteria those cells obtained genes through consuming scorpions over generations born in time ? Or a combination ?
Something to think about. What is the scorpions vemon made of ? Perhaps produced by bacteria ?

So interesting to search for and perhaps knowledge will be revealed about how evolution and the creation of separate species works...

The fierce grashopper mouse with its shrieking howl at the moon !
I guess if one would hear this the first time in the desert, one would think a train is coming and the train conductor is blowing the whistle.

 

[William Gaatjes]

This interesting, new insights that reveal that gravity has an effect on the immune system, especially lower levels of gravity.
Known as microgravity at the low orbit space levels like where ISS (International Space Station) resides.
The effect is for example latent virus reactivation, perhaps EBV, but perhaps also latent protozoa infection : Toxoplasmosis.
And perhaps also Chlamydia family of bacteria become reactivated. Just to name a few...

The gravity strength level is it seems very important for the construction of immune cells.

Read it at sciencedaily.com :

How the immune system goes awry during space travel and the implications for human aging on earth

Researching the immune system in space could have payoffs for human aging on earth. Scientists have revealed how the lack of gravity affects the cells of the immune system at single cell resolution.

www.sciencedaily.com

Small excerpt from text :
"

How the immune system goes awry during space travel and the implications for human aging on earth​

As long as humans have been traveling into space, astronauts have experienced significant health effects from the extreme conditions of space flight, notably the reduction of gravity.

Two Buck scientists led a team that has revealed for the first time how the lack of gravity affects the cells of the immune system at single cell resolution.
As co-senior authors, along with Christopher E. Mason, PhD of Weill Cornell Medical College, Associate Professor David Furman, PhD and Associate Professor Daniel Winer, MD, published in the June 11, 2020 issue of Nature Communications an extensive survey of how gravity affects immune cells, and the identification of "space nutraceuticals" to counter aberrant effects of microgravity on these cells.

"We show how simulated microgravity shapes immune cells and how the changes in force alter the cells' function at the single cell level," said Winer. "This level of resolution is new and exciting in understanding the effects of microgravity on cells."

Astronauts in low earth orbit, such as on the International Space Station, suffer from immune system problems, especially infections, latent viruses reactivating, and skin sensitivity. These reactions occur even on short-term spaceflights.

"Interestingly, changes in mechanical forces appear to orchestrate immune cell function," said Winer, whose interest in studying space medicine grew from him delving into the emerging field of mechanoimmunology, or how environmental forces affect immune cell function. Parts of astroimmunology are related to mechanoimmunolgy, but it is proving its own as a new field, he said, paving the way to better understand how to help the immune system survive in space.

They identified dozens of potential compounds and chose one, the plant pigment quercetin (often found in red onions, grapes, berries, apples and citrus fruits among others) to explore further since it is widely available as an antioxidant and anti-aging supplement. Quercetin turned out to reverse approximately 70 percent of the changes caused by lack of gravity and protected the cells from reactive oxygen species excess.
"

 

[William Gaatjes]

It has been warned for a long time that the daily pollution by humanity of the Earth together with the methane schemes and CO2 schemes, shall result in microbial life that is hazardous to us and cannot be defeated.
It is global pollution that is the problem and the real cause. Yet the solutions are pitiful, just do not let the large companies dump waste. Recycle. It is know, it is said for more than a century.
And teach civilians to clean up their garbage and not just throw it in nature or on the street.
Young healthy people do not need electromotors and sparse lithium for their bicycles, for example for short less than 3km rides.
Develop those muscles, muscles make you resilient.

But when from two eyes, the iris and pupil, changes into two silver coins. All sanity is lost...
How many pieces of silver does humanity require to receive ?

MRSA(Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is known.
Another warning is coming, again and again.

This time about drug resistent fungi :

Ignore antifungal resistance in fungal disease at your peril, warn top scientists

Without immediate action, humanity will potentially face further escalation in resistance in fungal disease, a renowned group of scientists from the across the world has warned. The commentary - published in 'The Lancet' this week - was coordinated by scientists at The University of Manchester...

www.uva.nl

Small excerpt from the text :

"

Ignore antifungal resistance in fungal disease at your peril, warn top scientists​

13 September 2024

Without immediate action, humanity will potentially face further escalation in resistance in fungal disease, a renowned group of scientists from the across the world has warned. The commentary - published in 'The Lancet' this week - was coordinated by scientists at The University of Manchester, the Westerdijk Institute and the University of Amsterdam. According to the scientists most fungal pathogens identified by the World Health Organisation - accounting for around 3.8 million deaths a year - are either already resistant or rapidly acquiring resistance to antifungal drugs.
The authors argue that the currently narrow focus on bacteria will not fully combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR). September’s United Nations meeting on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) must, they demand, include resistance developed in many fungal pathogens.

Devastating health impacts​

Resistance is nowadays the rule rather than the exception for the four currently available antifungal classes, making it difficult - if not impossible – to treat many invasive fungal infections. Fungicide resistant infections include Aspergillus, Candida, Nakaseomyces glabratus, and Trichophyton indotineae, all of which can have devastating health impacts on older or immunocompromised people.
Dr Norman van Rhijn from The University of Manchester coordinated the comment with Professor Ferry Hagen from the University of Amsterdam and the Westerdijk Institute in the Netherlands.
Dr van Rhijn said: “Most people agree that resistant bacterial infections constitute a significant part of the AMR problem. However many drug resistance problems over the past decades have also been the result of invasive fungal diseases largely underrecognized by scientists, governments, clinicians and pharmaceutical companies.
"

 

[William Gaatjes]

Great to watch, all the little cells under full color magnification in action.
Microbehunter :

Microbehunter

Small is beautiful! Join me in this fun and fascinating hobby! I started this channel for two main reasons: A. I want to get those people who do not know much about Microscopy and/or Biology interested in this hobby. B. I want to give those who already have a microscope some motivation and...

www.youtube.com

About the Contractile vacuole amd osmoregulation :